The Tudors Effect On History Essay - 1306 Words

Argument Persuasion Essay: The Tudors Effect on History â€Å"Nothing would be the same for any woman in this country again†¦. For everyone would know that if a wife such as Queen Katherine of England could be put aside for no reason, then any wife could be put aside.† (Gregory, 2002, 276) The Tudor dynasty was a well-known royal family during England in the 1500’s. The best known, and discussed ruler during this time was King Henry the VIII. He is known for his many wives, specifically six, and also his radical reformation of the English Church. King Henry VIII was very concerned with having a male heir to continue the dynasty. For that reason, he annulled his first marriage to Queen Catherine of Aragon. This annulment of his first marriage fuelled the creation of the English Church. Although Henry VIII may have acted in pure self-interest, this creation of the English Church would later lead to the Protestant Reformation. Students studying the Tudor Dynasty should appreciate the steps taken in religious history by Kin g Henry VIII. King Henry s desire for a male heir changed religious history. He was willing to annul his first marriage to ensure the continuation of the Tudor dynasty through a male heir. England wanted a strong alliance between England and Spain, leading to the marriage between Catherine of Aragon and King Henry VIII. Catherine had been married once before to Henry’s brother, Arthur. Once she was widowed, she was then remarried to Henry. Henry was desperate forShow MoreRelatedThe Tudors Effect On The English Church Essay1303 Words   |  6 Pages Argument Persuasion Essay: The Tudors Effect on the English Church â€Å"Nothing would be the same for any woman in this country again. From this time onward no wife, however obedient, however loving, would be safe. For everyone would know that if a wife such as Queen Katherine of England could be put aside for no reason, then any wife could be put aside.† (Gregory, 2002, 276) The Tudor dynasty was a well-known royal family during England in the 1500’s. The best known, and discussed ruler during thisRead More Glorifying the Tudor Dynasty: Shakespeares Richard III and the Perfect Villain 998 Words   |  4 PagesConsequently, influences from London and the royal family influenced plays such as Richard III. Specifically, the play affected the glorification of the Tudors, leading to the villanization of former king Richard III. This paper discusses and argues the effects of Elizabethan England on the plot, villain, and gender roles- all leading to the glorification of the Tudor dynasty. Firstly, Niccollo Machiavelli’s influences on England during the Elizabethan Era transmit in the plot of the play. Machiavelli, anRead MoreThe Battle of Bosworth Field and its Effect on Government and Society1237 Words   |  5 Pagestook place on 22 August 1485; it was between the army of Henry Tudor, Earl of Richmond and King Richard III. It was the 16th and penultimate battle of the War of the Roses. It was crucial to the outcome to the war and the history of the world to come. The battle of Bosworth Field effected England, through the military, as peace was brought to England after centuries of war, politically as Henry VII came to the crown, beginning the Tudor dynasty, with Henry VII revolution of Government, and SociallyRead MoreMary Tudor : Old And New Perspectives Essay1661 Words   |  7 PagesMary Tudor: Old and New Perspectives, is a new look at a woman that has been studied for decades. This book is a positive, and different, look on Mary Tudors reign as queen of England. This novel is composed of essays by ten different historians who analyze different aspects of Mary’s reign and provide new perspectives on it. The book is split into two sections, old and new perspectives. The first section, old perspectives, is a broader look of Mary’s reign and reputation after her death. The secondRead MoreIs Queen Mary The First?1042 Words   |  5 PagesDaniel Blizzard Class: Reading 2b Teacher: Ms. Cary Word court is 703 2nd 9 weeks Research Paper Who was Queen Mary the first? Queen Mary the first was an interesting person in history. She did many things in the short time she was in power. In my paper, I’m going to talk about her family, what she did during her rule, the way she controlled the economics of Europe, and the standard of life during Mary’s life time. Let me tell you more. There are many reasons Mary’s family was importantRead MoreHistory Of King Richard IIi Of England1382 Words   |  6 PagesHistory is not all that it is cracked up to be. If a person believes himself/herself to be logical, it is easy to assume that researchers of history and authors of historical works are ethical and do their best. This is not a conclusion that is borne out by the facts. The case of the written history of King Richard III of England is an outstanding example of the lack of adequate research and actual perfidy on the part of historians. Richard III reigned for a brief period in the late 15th centuryRead MoreEssay on Queen Elizabeth I - Family, Religion, and Politics1479 Words   |  6 Pagespersonally and politically. Although she had, at times, a horrible temper and a disagreeable personality, and suffered through many physical and psychological problems as an adult, Elizabeth proved to be one of the most remarkable monarchs in English history. Firstly, I will discuss Elizabeth’s family (including her many stepmothers), and then I will talk about her relationship with her siblings under their power. Thirdly, I will examine religion and how it affected her opinions and politics during herRead MorePortraiture Depictions Of Queen Elizabeth I1578 Words   |  7 PagesPortraiture Depictions of Queen Elizabeth I Elizabeth Tudor or Queen Elizabeth I was and is one of the greatest monarchs in English history. Obtaining the crown at a young age of twenty-five, she seized a bankrupt country caused by previous rulers, a country with an unstable religion, and loose ties with other great powers of the world. Elizabeth I ruled for nearly half a century granting her the remembrance with reigning with stability, the flourishment of the arts, and increased trade. Elizabeth’sRead MoreQueen Mary Stuart Of Scotland And Queen Elizabeth I Of England1015 Words   |  5 Pages In the renaissance period of history, there was a feud that came about that dominated Europe. Cousins, Queen Mary Stuart of Scotland and Queen Elizabeth I of England, formed an unpleasant relationship that ended with execution. The scandalous rivalry between Mary, Queen of Scots and Queen Elizabeth I had a profound effect on the politics of their time. Queen Elizabeth I was much more regal than her cousin, Mary Stuart of Scotland, and ruled her kingdom with poise and sophistication. When ElizabethRead MoreThe Character of Richard III as Shakespeare Presents Him to Us1629 Words   |  7 Pagescharacter that he finds useful. Richard played the loving brother to Clarense until his death. But whats the matter Clarence? May I know? When he woos Anne he has to make her believe that he loves her. Your beauty was the cause of that effect. Richard when he shocks the king with the news of Clarences death must appear to be innocent. Who knows not the gentle Duke is dead? Richardss best acting however was defiantly when he pretends that he doesnt want the crown.

The Social Model of Mental Illness Essay - 1337 Words

The Social Model of Mental Illness The social model of mental illness emphasizes the social environment and the roles people play. Thomas Scheff maintains that people diagnosed as mentally ill are victims of the status quo, guilty of often unnamed violations of social norms; thus the label mental illness can be used as an instrument of social control. I agree with Scheffs analysis, and I strongly concur with the view Thomas Szasz takes on the notion of mental illness. Szasz argues that much of what we call mental illness is a myth; it is not an illness, but simply problems in living, troubles caused by conflicting personal needs, opinions, social aspirations, values, and so forth (Szasz 13). It thus follows that the widely†¦show more content†¦In his view, today, particularly in the affluent West, all of the difficulties and problems in living are considered psychiatric diseases, and everyone (but the diagnosticians) is considered mentally ill (Szasz 4). However, there is very little evidence supportin g the popular view that for the most part mental illnesses are mental diseases; that is, of a legitimate biological, physiological, neurological or chromosomal nature. Instead, as Szasz writes, what people now call mental illnesses are, for the most part, communications expressing unacceptable ideas, often framed in an unusual idiom (Szasz 19).Show MoreRelatedThe Psychology Of Mental Illness1177 Words   |  5 PagesWhen it comes to mental illness, I have the point of view of someone who is training to be a health care professional. During my past clinical experience as a nursing student at the Alberta Hospital Edmonton, I was immersed in an environment filled with individuals who were acutely mentally ill, and two of these individuals were my patients. While â€Å"The Sociology of Mental Illness† is an excellent source of information about mental illness in the context of sociology, based on my experience at AlbertaRead MoreSociological Approaches Of Mental Illness1367 Wo rds   |  6 Pages â€Æ' The Deviance Model places certain individuals who portray qualities of what we may consider as people with mental illness, where their thoughts, feelings, or behaviors violate own or others expectations (the violation of social norms). This sociological approach is frequently debated where the individual is being conceptualized as either sick or deviant which then reflects on their deviant behavior. Deviant behaviors should not determine whether someone is mentally ill or not. There are individualsRead MoreCritically Compare and Contrast Community Psychology and Public Health Approaches to Social Problems851 Words   |  4 Pagesapproaches to social problems. I will do this by comparing strengths and weaknesses of both approaches, as well as similarities between these approaches. To compare these two concepts, one should first have a basic understanding of the origins and historical development of community psychology and public health. According to the American Heritage Medical dictionary (www.ahdictionary.com) Community Psychology is â€Å"the application of psychology to community programs for the prevention of mental healthRead MoreThe Biological Model Of Mental Illness1356 Words   |  6 Pagesdefined by experts, a mental illness is a clinically significant behavioral or psychological syndrome or pattern that occurs in an individual and involves changes in thinking, emotion, behavior, interpersonal interactions, daily functioning, or a combination. The causes of mental illness are complex and vary depending on the theories associated to the different biological, psychological, and environmental factors. The etiology of mental illness is based on five broad models: biological, psychologicalRead MoreComparison with Community Psychology and Public Health1055 Words   |  5 PagesIntroduction The American Heritage Medical dictionary (Website one, 2007) defines community psychology (CP) as â€Å"the application of psychology to community programs for the prevention of mental health disorders and the promotion of mental health.† Public health (PH) on the other hand is defined as â€Å"the science and practice of protecting and improving the health of a community as by preventative medicine; health education; control of communicable diseases; application of sanitary measures and monitoringRead MoreComparison with Community Psychology and Public Health1049 Words   |  5 PagesIntroduction The American Heritage Medical dictionary (Website one, 2007) defines community psychology (CP) as â€Å"the application of psychology to community programs for the prevention of mental health disorders and the promotion of mental health.† Public health (PH) on the other hand is defined as â€Å"the science and practice of protecting and improving the health of a community as by preventative medicine; health education; control of communicable diseases; application of sanitary measures and monitoringRead MoreThe Sociological Perspective On Medical Conditions1687 Words   |  7 Pagesdifferent approach to explain medical conditions. The sociological perspective focuses on the external influences, rather than then internal influences, such as the social environment, institutions, and relationships to assess and explain illness. The sociological perspective contains the following theories to support its assessment of illness and they are: stigma, labeling theory, and medicalizati on. These three concepts play a large role in the sociological perspective. According to Freund, stigma isRead MoreThe Fountain House And New York945 Words   |  4 Pages1948 with the idea that people with mental illness can effectively participate in their own recovery (The Fountain House, n.d.). Former patients of Rockland State Hospital, a psychiatric hospital in New York, began a self-help group and then formed WAWA (We Are Not Alone) (The Fountain House, n.d.). The first official meeting of We Are Not Alone was held at the Third Street YMCA in Manhattan. It started out as a support system for people with mental illness, but did not include treatment programsRead MoreMental Illness And Psychiatric Disability Essay1406 Words   |  6 Pagesto explain the definitions of mental health, mental illness and psychiatric disability, using bipolar disorder as an example to illustrate these points. Bipolar disorder will also be used to explain the concepts of the medical and social m odels of disability, highlight the influence these two models could have on people with the disorder and the experiences they might encounter. There will be a focus on some of the experiences a person suffering from mental illness might have in society, the effectRead MoreThe Myth Of Mental Illness By Thomas Szasz Summary1472 Words   |  6 PagesReview of Thomas Szasz. M.D.,The Myth Of Mental Illness: Foundations of a Theory of Personal Conduct. Thomas Szasz was one of the first psychiatrist to criticise psychiatry and argue about the concept of mental illness. His book â€Å"The Myth of Mental Illness: Foundations of a Theory of Personal Conduct† highlights the fundamental flaws in the administration of psychiatry, with the aim of challenging the medical characteristics of the concept of mental illness and the wrongful treatment of patients without

Divorce and Major Life Change free essay sample

Conclusion: due to the above listed points which strongly oppose divorce, there should be reforms to make it harder to get a divorce. PROPOSAL Divorce: should there be reforms to make divorce harder? Concerns of research: this paper is concerned with the effects of divorce and how it affects the society as a whole. It explains why divorce is rather negative thereby highlighting the adverse effects it has on the society. Question/ Topics to be addressed: 1. What are the causes of divorce? 2. How can causes these causes be controlled to avoid divorce? 3. What are the disadvantages of divorce? 4. Divorce is any form of dissolution of a marital union (Wikipedia). It can also be said to be the termination of a marriage. It involves the separation of a couple and withdrawal of any legal responsibilities which the couples owe each other. It is a mutual agreement between a husband and wife to separate due to certain reasons which make them unable to live with each other. Though divorce is a legal act, it does not always coincide with the couple’s emotions. Sometimes, you find couples splitting up not because they do not love each other but because of one offence committed by either of the spouses. Divorce is used as the easy way out when couples can no longer live with each other. The procedure of divorce varies greatly from country to country but in most countries there has to be a legal authorization from a court or any related legal authority. Between 1971 and 2011, almost all the countries legalized divorce leaving only a few countries where divorce is still not legalized. According to Wikipedia: â€Å"Between 1971 and 2011, five European countries legalized divorce: Italy, Spain, Portugal, Ireland and Malta. This leaves just the Philippines as the only country that does not have a civil procedure for divorce. Like every major life change, divorce is stressful. It brings about a lot of drastic changes to the family as a whole. It will then take time for the family to re-adjust into their new ways of life. For the couple, they learn to live an independent life without any support from their partner or in some cases with support from their partners. This factor depends on t he type of divorce and the agreement between the couple. The couples also have to learn to be single parents in the case where children are involved. The children stay with either partner depending on the mutual agreement between the partners or custody given by court. Divorce can be viewed from two basic approaches; fault based and no-fault based though there are various types (Wikipedia). According to Wikipedia, we have the following types of divorces; No-fault divorce: this type of divorce does not require any allegation or proof of fault by either partner. This type of divorce also depends on the country. In some countries, the court only requires a statement of â€Å"irreversible breakdown† before the divorce can be legalized while in others, a statement of â€Å"irreconcilable differences† is required. Nowadays, most countries of the world do not practice this type of divorce. Wikipedia) Fault divorce: this type of divorce has been in existence since 1960. In this case, for a divorce to be legalized, the court requires proof that one of the partners committed an act incompatible with marriage. These proofs are called â€Å"grounds† of divorce or faults. This type of divorce is practiced by almost all countries of the worl d. (Wikipedia) Summary divorce: this is the type of divorce which is used when the partners meet eligible requirements or agree on key issues such as short marriage, no mortgage, no children and so on before the commencement of the marriage. This is only practiced in some countries. (Wikipedia) Uncontested divorce: this type of divorce occurs when the partners are able to come to an agreement with or without lawyers about their property, children and support issues. If the partners have a fair agreement, they can then present the court with it and their divorce will be legalized and if not, it is up to the court to decide how they will share everything. (Wikipedia) Collaborative divorce: this is a case whereby there is an agreement between spouses to go their separate ways which would require an attorney to be present. In this type of divorce the spouses do not necessarily separate because of disagreements, but because they decided to go their separate ways. Mediated divorce: this is a traditional type of divorce in which a mediator helps the two parties to communicate and provides information. At the end of the mediation process, they come to an agreement which they present to the court. (Wikipedia) Nowadays, the level at which people get divorced is rampant and it is increasing on a daily basis. There are various reasons which lead people to get divorces though some might not be supportable enough. The major family problems which lead to divorce include: adultery, lack of communication, young marriages. (Pansen) Adultery: this is when either of the spouses cheats on each other with a different person. It can also be when either of the spouses is engaged in extramarital affairs. This a very serious offence in a marriage because by committing adultery, you are sabotaging everything both of you have put into the marriage. Majority of marriages in which adultery was committed leads to divorce because it leaves the partners feeling betrayed. Pansen) Lack of communication: according to Sonel Pansen: â€Å"Lack of communication is one of the leading causes of divorce. A marriage is on the rocks when the lines of communication fail. † In recent times, a lot of families face financial problems and this causes spouses to work for longer hours and hence leaves them with little or no time to communicate with each other. Due to this, the partners do not discuss their problems or look for solutions to their problems. Little problems which could have been resolved accumulate into huge problems finally resulting in divorce. Pansen) Young marriages: as people always say; â€Å"young marriages do not last†. This statement is very true because most young marriages are rushed into. The partners at very young ages feel they are â€Å"in love† which makes them feel invincible. At that point in time, they do not think straight and feel marriage is the next step. This deprives the couple of getting to know each other. Most of these marriages end up in regret which leads to divorce. (Pansen) People who experience divorce are greatly affected by it and majority of the times, the effects are rather negative. Divorce is not in any way advisable. It brings about emotional instability, unhappiness, broken homes, lack of unity. The only time when divorce should be considered is if the couple can no longer tolerate each other and they might cause harm to one another. Though these are the general effects of divorce, divorce has different effects on the different members of the family and the society as a whole. The effects of divorce can be divided into the effects on children, effects on the couple and the effects on the society. The effects of divorce on children The divorce of a couple brings about so much stress to their children. It leaves the children with the problems of having to adjust to a new life. Divorce usually brings about instability and unhappiness to the children. Most of the time, the children get drawn away from either parent depending on the parent who has custody over the children. The children also have a high tendency of having a decreased standard of living because they do not have both parents to care for them. The children might have divided lives in cases where they live with both parents and this causes a lot of confusion for the children because they try to balance both life styles. Divorce also causes the children to bare more responsibilities because a broken home does not provide them with the care they require (Foulkes). Children from divorced homes usually tend to mature psychologically too fast or act older than their age and this may lead the children astray. Sometimes, divorce can bring about child abuse especially in situations where their parents remarry. According to researchers, the effect divorce has on children largely depends on their gender. Female children affected by divorce tend to be sexually abused due to lack of parental awareness or decreased parental awareness. (Johnson). Girls from divorce homes tend to engage in sexual activities at earlier ages hence leading to teenage pregnancies. A lot of female children also become runaways because they feel they are not getting enough attention. These girls who run away end up prostituting or engaging in drugs because they have no guidance. Male children on the other hand tend to be more aggressive and disobedient (Foulkes). They tend to withdraw from their parents. They blame themselves for their parents’ divorce. Boys tend to go indulge in negative acts such as drinking, smoking, theft. They also suffer from depression. The effects of divorce on couples The effect of divorce on couples is devastating because during marriage, couples learn to live with each other and complement each other and when they get divorced, it is usually hard for them to adjust. They have to accept the fact they would not have their partner there for them anymore. Divorce is a very stressful process to couples; it brings about anxiety to both parties. Divorce affects couples socially, financially, economically and in so many other ways. Socially, because they might no longer get along or feel comfortable with each other, they result in having different friends or even changing their life styles. Economically, there are a lot of problems. They are faced with the problems of splitting properties (Gac). Though divorce affects the couple as a whole, its effects are rather different on the male and female partner. For male partners, divorce may interfere with their jobs and wage earning ability. They might even turn to drug trafficking or various other illegal acts as a means of income. They tend to live an unhealthy life because most of the times, they turn to alcohol and sleeping around with prostitutes for comfort. They get really stressed out and this leads to unnecessary anger. They tend to be distant from their children (Effets of divorce on men). The female partners on the other hand tend to get really emotional during divorce. A woman might feel guilty and blame herself for abandoning her family especially in the case where she has children. According to family. org. com, a renowned website, the most common effect of divorce on women is depression (Gleason). The female partners are also likely to go into prostitution as a means to get money to care for their children. They might turn to alcohol and having multiple sex partners as a means of relieving stress. The effect of divorce on the society Divorce does not only affect the family members, it also affects the society as a whole. The family members who go through divorce usually end up as menaces to the society because they are into various negative acts. The rise in divorce rates also leads to increase in emotional instability and crime rates (The effects of divorce on the society). In societies of today, the situations concerning illegal acts and crime rates are already too high as it is and divorce is just adding to it. Sometime ago, divorce was considered to be a social taboo and was avoided as much as possible but in today’s generation, divorce seems to be a normal thing. Divorce, directly or indirectly has too many negative effects on the individuals involved and the society at large. Experts suggest that the easing of the divorce process makes the rate of divorce more rampant. If there were reforms to make divorce getting a divorce harder, a lot of the problems listed above would be waved. According to the Qur’an The most hateful permissible thing (al-Halal) in the sight of Allah is divorce (Abu Dawud, Hadith 1863, Ibn Majah, Hadith 2008). † (islamicislamic. com) This is a statement from the Qur’an which clearly shows that God is against divorce. It does not only show his detest for divorce, it further explains that divorce is the most hateful permissible sin. Jesus is reported to have said:† â€Å"Whoever divorces his wife and marries another, commits adultery against her; and if a woman divorces her husband and marries another, she commits adultery (Mark 10:11-12). † (islamicislamic. com)This statement shows that Christianity has prohibited the marriage to a divorced man or woman. Though it is not directly said that divorce is prohibited, it is common sense to depict that divorce is not supported by Christianity or Islam. The two major religions in the world which are Islam and Christianity are strongly against divorce. Your religion is what you believe in, it determines the way you live your life and clearly it points out that divorce is wrong and should be a last resort. Is this not enough reason to stay away from divorce? Divorce greatly affects the partners involved but most of all; it affects the children the most. Why should innocent children have to pay for mistakes which are not theirs? In one way or the other, when you look at divorce from different perspectives, it all boils down to being wrong.

Zika Virus and Zika Virus Infection †Free Samples to Students

Question: Discuss about the Zika Virus and Zika Virus Infection. Answer: Introduction Zika virus came from the flavivirus borne from the mosquito emerged from the spondweni group which was at first identified in the monkeys of Uganda in 1947. Later in 1952, it was identified in the people living in Uganda along with Nigeria and gradually the virus covered the USA, Asia pacific countries, Arica, Tanzania and many other countries across the globe. In July 2015 Brazil identified a relation between Guillain-Barre disorder (GBS) and Zika infection; it damages the nervous system by the weakening of muscles affecting the immune system (Murray, 2016). In October 2015 Brazil also reported a relationship between microcephaly and Zika infection. More than 5600 cases of microcephaly reported in the year 2016 which is greater than 20 folds with respect to average o past five years. Zika virus along with the Spondweni creates a sub-branch into the genus flavivirus which belongs to the flaviviridae family. It results in spondweni fever in human beings which is characterized by fever with symptoms of nausea, headache, chills, and discomfort. Sponwei virus was first identified in 1955 from mansonia uniformis mosquitoes which emerged from Lake Simbu which is situated in Spondweni region of South Africa (Murray, 2016). This virus as recently observed in sub regions of Saharan Africa and Papua New Guinea. Genes of this virus are made up of complex ssRNA molecules which is having two non-coding regions by analogy. It is a code for a polypeptide which is a combination of the capsid(C), envelope (E), precursor membrane (prM) and non-structural proteins (NS) (Murray, 2016). This coding is responsible for the recent outbreak in 2015. As per the recent reports published by WHO is widely spread in the Caribbean and Latin American countries. Although the virus came into exist ence 60 years back in Africa the awareness to cause possible threats was revealed in the recent years only. In many countries, the detection of this virus is due to the circulation of the travellers who are travelling from the countries where this virus is much active (Rawlinson, 2016). Recent reports say that in India three cases of this virus have been introduced through reverse transcription polymerase chain reaction (RT-PCR) by routine laboratory surveillance. It has been also reported that many sub-tropical and tropical regions in the world are at risk of this virus in the form of Chikungunya, yellow fever, and DENV (Joob Wiwanitkit, 2017). Few studies suggest that since the year 2007 to march 2017 total 84 countries across the world is affected by this virus. ZIKV is an icosahedral, single stranded, enveloped, positive sense RNA virus with the non-segmented genome. It is 40 nm in diameter having dense projection coated lipid envelope, which consists of a membrane and envelope glycoproteins having a dense inner core. Virions which are situated on the surface of cell membrane get entry into the host cell after which the mRNA transcription takes place (Joob Wiwanitkit, 2017). Whenever the virus from the mosquito is transferred to the healthy human being it causes infection same is the case with the pregnant mother, if the virus gets transferred from mother to fetus then there are chances of an infant born with microcephaly. Zika infection: a global threat to human population Before 2015 ZIKV was not much in the notice as compared to another disease like EBOLA, influenza. Vomiting, headache, joint pains, rashes, red eyes all are the symptoms of this infection and is quite easy to detect as there is no specific therapy or vaccine available due to its treatable and mild symptoms. But these two factors have taken this virus in the notice (Wang, Wang An, 2016). People did not gave much attention to this virus due to its low incidence and mildness of symptoms. There are two factors due to which ZIKV infection has emerged as a global issue for discussion. In the year 1947, scientists detected this virus from the samples which were taken from a sentinel rhesus monkey in ZIKA forests, Uganda. The first proof of this infection was identified when a scientist fell ill while working on the strains collected from the mosquito; this discovered that this virus can be spread to human beings (Wang, Wang An, 2016). ZIKA virus is spreading at an extraordinary speed, it has covered almost one fourth of the countries across the globe. Dengue and Chikungunya are also the infections which have emerged from this virus. French and Brazilian countries have reported several incidences of spine malformation and congenital brain specially microcephaly. Transmission of this virus from mother to her fetus has resulted in microcephaly in infants which has to lead to the underdeveloped brain, leading to developmental retardation and it can also cause death in some cases (Weltman, 2016). There are different types of malformation due to infections, which have resulted in deaths but these cases are never linked with ZIKA virus. On December 8th, 2015 Brazil reported 1762 incidence of microcephaly whereas total 84 cases were reported in 2014. An infant born with microcephaly tested positive for ZIKA virus died on 28th November. This case created panic in people of Brazil; everyone was in fear due to this outbreak (Weltman, 2016). Many health organizations came into action and confirmed that there is an increase in the number of cases of disorders in central nerve system. These organizations advised people especi ally pregnant ladies to read about the symptoms of this virus and take preventive measures to keep them away from mosquito bites. Travellers were also warned that they should restrict their travelling to affected areas (Sorbera Stringer, 2017). Lack of vaccine. No proper research and common symptoms Another reason is that there is no vaccination available for ZIKA virus as of now. Scientists are doing efforts to produce one, but testing and then producing a medicine takes years and is expensive also. The virus was occurring occasionally and no research was done for this (Spivak, 2016). only few people were researching on ZIKA virus and none of them were aware of the fact that how severe this virus is and it can spread how rapidly. Funding was being allotted to the research done on many other infectious diseases; people were not at all prepared to respond quickly to this virus. In the remote areas where there is a lack of resources and facility people did not pay much attention to ZIKA until WHO has interfered. Another reason was that it has similar symptoms to another infectious disease like Chikungunya, dengue and it is generally circulating in the same regions where the other infections are circulating. As it is almost impossible to prevent one from mosquito bites, WHO recomme nded pregnant ladies from not going to places where this virus is active and ladies who are planning to become pregnant should consult their doctors before visiting these places (Spivak, 2016). Lack of strong immunity system and research labs in remote areas can also be one of the reasons from spreading this disease. Mild fever, skin rashes, red eyes, headache, joint pain, and conjunctivitis are the most common symptoms of ZIKA infection and they appear after 3-12 days of biting of mosquito. It can sometimes occur without symptom but often it has been observed that it has mild symptoms that can last up to 7 days. Severe symptoms which can lead to hospitalization are very rare (Sheng et al., 2017). ZIKA virus is transmitted by Ades Ageypti, a day biting mosquito. These mosquitoes are active during morning and late morning and evening. These mosquitoes also transmit the infection of yellow fever, Chikungunya, and dengue (Sheng et al., 2017). Whenever a female Ades Ageypti bites any human, a virus presented in the salivary gland gets injected of the infected mosquito into the wound where the anti-coagulants contained in her saliva facilitate feeding, and without knowing the male mosquito also injects the ZIKA virus into the host. There is another way through which the infection is transmitted from m other to fetus and when the child is born he suffers from the underdeveloped brain (Du, Zhou Jiang, 2017). Sexual transmission is also one of the ways through which the infection is transferred from the male to female or vice versa. Blood transfusion through organ transplant also results in the transmission of infection (Sheng et al., 2017). Currently, there are no such medication and vaccines available for this virus, your immune system is the best cure available till now but one can take precautions: From mosquito bites- prevention from mosquito bites is the key measure to avoid this virus from spreading. Using mosquito repellents, wearing full sleeves clothes, screened windows will minimize the risk of affecting the virus. It is very much important for children and old people to take precautions because there immune system is weak. People who are travelling must avoid going to places which are affected from ZIKA and pregnant ladies, if any has been infected by this virus then she should be immediately taken to hospital as this infection is transmissible and can affect her fetus (Slavov, Otaguiri, Kashima Covas, 2016). It is very much critical to prevent breeding of these mosquitoes in houses as they breed and reproduce in stagnant water bodies, so one must ensure to cover all the water filling containers and empty waste water and sprinkle the pesticide timely to prevent breeding of mosquitoes. Through sexual transmission- transmission through sexual activities has been confirmed by many labs. In order to prevent one from the risk of sexual intermission and pregnancy complications due to ZIKA virus contamination, one should indulge in safe sex or avoid sexual activities during pregnancy if the partner is affected by ZIK infection (Gruber Krause, 2017). If anyone has come from the area which is affected by the virus then he should avoid sexual intermission at least for 8 weeks although if there is no symptom found. ZIKV Recent epidemic status/ Role of agents In the year 2015 Brazil and panama have reported many cases of microcephaly; Colombia has also joined the league by detecting few cases which are linked with Zika virus. In other countries, there are not enough research and evidence to prove the link of this case with Zika. After the outbreak, Brazil has seen 20 times rise in the cases of the Zika infection where babies are born to an infected mother with microcephaly (Slavov, Otaguiri, Kashima Covas, 2016). This virus is currently active in 38 countries and gradually increasing in other countries by affecting infants causing fetal malformation and nervous disorders. If this goes beyond control then it will be a serious health catastrophe for the world. Looking after this condition many health organizations have identified that there is an urgent need Point of Care Testing (POCT (Slavov, Otaguiri, Kashima Covas, 2016)). At present, there are 30 companies who are working on it and have developed an advanced version of diagnostic tes ts. For vaccines total 23 proposals are being worked on by around 14 vaccine developer companies located in India, France, Australia, and the US. Since these vaccinations are being prepared for the pregnant ladies and the women of child bearing age, it must fulfil high standards of safety (Zea-Vera Parra, 2016). Potential results of five new tools of mosquito control are also being tested by many experts among whom no one qualified for full scale implementation. Some Brazilian experts were in doubt that Zika alone is responsible for microcephaly or there are other factors which to be held responsible for the birth defects. As on 5th August 2016 total of 185 travellers cases, two pregnant mother cases, and one sexually transmitted case have been detected in Canada (Zea-Vera Parra, 2016). Traditionally, there is a TORCH agent which has four characteristics consisting of mild illness in the mother who is infected, transmission of virus to fetus vertically, development of various anomalies in the fetus and in some cases maternal therapy therefore this should be considered as a severe TORCH agent which is threatening public health. There are many types of research on Zika virus vaccination but none of them made it to he market. The target population is pregnant women and women bearing the age of the child so it should be safe and effective. Only effective DNA vaccines would be preferred rather than vaccines which are made out of weakened Zika virus to ensure safety measures (Zea-Vera Parra, 2016). The increasing number of cases which are affected by the virus is an alarming situation so there is an urgent need for production of vaccines. Clinical trials- few of the best clinical trials used were mice, rhesus macaques and then human. Three different types of investigational vaccines were used, DNA based vaccine, inactivated virus vaccine and adenovirus vector based vaccines. Each of the three trials holds the possibility of designing effective Zika vaccine (Gowder, 2016). Efforts with mouse model- research were conducted on mice and reported six different Zika virus antibodies out of which four neutralized the strains of mosquitoes transmitted from Africa, Asia, and America. NIAID supported team x-ray crystal images of these four antibodies and extracted Zika proteins which could be beneficial in producing vaccines (Martins, Dye Bavari, 2016). DNA vaccine or purified inactive virus vaccine provides complete safety in mice against zikv in single immunization (Gowder, 2016). Efforts with rhesus macaques- the above testing of inactivated Zika virus vaccine were also done on 16 rhesus macaques. These animals were two injections continuously for four weeks after which they did not show any symptom of Zika virus another experiment was also done in which researchers administered two doses of an experimental DNA and one dose of adenovirus vector vaccine to three different groups of four monkeys each. These monkeys were then kept in contact with Zika virus for four weeks (White et.al, 2016). Both DNA and adeno virus vaccines provided complete protection from infection. Both of them protected from infection, boost the immune system and had no adverse side effect of vaccines. But due to the huge gestational difference in rhesus macaques and human this experiment needs to be done on a human to provide vaccines (Takasaki, 2016). Efforts with human testing- the NIAID and NIH performed this test on 80 healthy candidates between the age of 18 to 35 years. DNA vaccine was considered for the clinical trial in human. The first stage will identify the response of immune system to the vaccine (Takasaki, 2016). Two new technologies including synthetic pieces of DNA and electric pulse to open immune cells were considered so that they take up vaccines better. As a result, these vaccines were found safe and immune system was also responding well. DNA or gene based vaccinations provides strong and durable protection against disease (Takasaki, 2016). Phase 1 of this research is still under process once the results show a positive outcome, the second phase will start. US government has distributed a license to use these vaccines and materials all over the world for research purpose (Du, Zhou Jiang, 2017). GLS-5700 the inovio Zika product is called DNA vaccine. In this vaccine, there is a protein inbuilt that encircles the Zika virus. The site where injection has been injected is damaged using a device that passes an electric pulse which guides DNA into the cells into the cells through a process called electroporation (Nilika Kamboj, 2016). The cells then the instruct immune system to consider Zika virus as foreign invader which needs to be attacked using antibodies to fight against it. Several researchers and scientists are in competition to develop the vaccination for Zika virus but there is a group of scientists who have found 24 FDA approved drugs which have shown some potential to block Zika from infecting human cells. Few of the drugs which are used for treating cancer and depression have also shown some positive signs of curing Zika virus in pregnant women (Nilika Kamboj, 2016). These researchers initially took 774 drugs out of which 24 were found effective. Now, these drugs a re being used for further studies to develop vaccines against Zika virus from spreading. Conclusion Zika virus is an infection which has come from mosquito bite generally in the day time. It has very mild symptoms and was first discovered in the year 1948.among all the countries Africa is said to be the most affected country from this virus followed by south and North America. The main reason for this global emergency is its link with congenital birth defects to an infected mother and lack of vaccines available due to very limited researches done (Nilika Kamboj, 2016). Another reason is the absence of population immunity. As there are no vaccines available for this infection WHO has advised people to stay at home and prevent themselves from these mosquito bites. It is the only option left with people to take corrective measures like use mosquito repellent, use screened glass, wear full sleeves clothes by this way they can prevent themselves from biting of mosquito (S, 2017). Specially pregnant ladies must take cares if they are affected then there is cancer that it can affect thei r baby also which can cause congenital birth defects in the baby in the form of underdeveloped brain or weak muscles or damaged nervous system. Other prevention can also be taken by cleaning the house properly and dont let the mosquitoes breed. Tremendous information is available on the research being done on the Zika virus, but says now there is no such vaccine came out which can prevent humans from this virus (S, 2017). This virus is currently active in 38 countries and gradually increasing in other countries by affecting infants causing fetal malformation and nervous disorders. If this goes beyond control, then it will be a serious health catastrophe for the world (Maslow, 2017). So keeping this in mind various health organizations have issued information on how to prevent themselves from this infection and what are the possible symptoms through which one can identify that they are suffering from this infection (?ahiner, 2016). Mild fever, headache, reddish eyes, rashes on the skin are some of the symptoms, but these symptoms are somewhat same as of Chikungunya, yellow fever, and dengue. Many countries are working on identifying the correct vaccination for this infection, which is safe and secure for pregnant women, but till now no such product has come up in the market (?ahiner, 2016). The target population is pregnant women and women bearing the age of the child so it should be safe and effective . Only effective DNA vaccines would be preferred rather than vaccines which are made out of weakened Zika virus to ensure safety measures. The increasing number of cases which are affected by the virus is an alarming situation so there is an urgent need for production of vaccines. It is up to humans how they prevent themselves from this infection, numerous information has been provided by the health organizations now depends on us, how do we use this information and prevent ourselves and our family and surrounding (S, 2017). It is an alarming situation in the world and it is high time now that they should seriously act on it and produce vaccines which can prevent this disease. References Du, L., Zhou, Y., Jiang, S. (2017). The latest advancements in Zika virus vaccine development.Expert Review Of Vaccines,16(10), 951-954. https://dx.doi.org/10.1080/14760584.2017.1363648 Gowder, S. (2016). Zika Virus - Vaccines and Management.International Journal Of Vaccines Vaccination,2(1). https://dx.doi.org/10.15406/ijvv.2016.02.00019 Gruber, M., Krause, P. (2017). Regulating vaccines at the FDA: development and licensure of Zika vaccines.Expert Review Of Vaccines,16(6), 525-527. https://dx.doi.org/10.1080/14760584.2017.1324304 Joob, B., Wiwanitkit, V. (2017). Human Zika and West Nile virus neurological infections.Neuropathology,37(5), 482-482. https://dx.doi.org/10.1111/neup.12400 Martins, K., Dye, J., Bavari, S. (2016). Considerations for the development of Zika virus vaccines.Vaccine,34(33), 3711-3712. https://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.vaccine.2016.06.012 Maslow, J. (2017). Vaccines for Emerging Infectious Diseases: lessons from MERS coronavirus and Zika virus.Human Vaccines Immunotherapeutics, 00-00. https://dx.doi.org/10.1080/21645515.2017.1358325 Murray, J. (2016). Understanding Zika virus.Journal For Specialists In Pediatric Nursing,22(1), e12164. https://dx.doi.org/10.1111/jspn.12164 Nilika, N., Kamboj, G. (2016). Tiger mosquito poses a new threat: the Zika Virus.Scholars Journal Of Applied Medical Sciences,4(7), 2478-2479. https://dx.doi.org/10.21276/sjams.2016.4.7.35 Rawlinson, W. (2016). Pregnancy, the placenta and Zika virus (ZIKV) infection.Microbiology Australia. https://dx.doi.org/10.1071/ma16057 S, W. (2017). Carditis in Zika Virus Infection.Journal Of Cardiovascular Medicine And Cardiology, 012-012. https://dx.doi.org/10.17352/2455-2976.000039 ?AH?NER, F. (2016). Global Spread of Zika Virus Epidemic: Current Knowledges and Uncertainties.Mikrobiyoloji Bulteni,50(2), 333-351. https://dx.doi.org/10.5578/mb.24167 Sheng, Z., Gao, N., Wang, Z., Cui, X., Zhou, D., Fan, D. et al. (2017). Sertoli Cells Are Susceptible to ZIKV Infection in Mouse Testis.Frontiers In Cellular And Infection Microbiology,7. https://dx.doi.org/10.3389/fcimb.2017.00272 Slavov, S., Otaguiri, K., Kashima, S., Covas, D. (2016). Overview of Zika virus (ZIKV) infection in regards to the Brazilian epidemic.Brazilian Journal Of Medical And Biological Research,49(5). https://dx.doi.org/10.1590/1414-431x20165420 Sorbera, L., Stringer, M. (2017). Therapeutic targets for Zika virus infection.Drugs Of The Future,42(5), 285. https://dx.doi.org/10.1358/dof.2017.042.05.2638227 Spivak, Y. (2016). ZIKV: What do we know about this Virus?.Global Journal Of Otolaryngology,1(3). https://dx.doi.org/10.19080/gjo.2016.01.555563 Takasaki, T. (2016). Zika Virus and Zika Virus Infection.Journal Of Veterinary Epidemiology,20(1), 70-71. https://dx.doi.org/10.2743/jve.20.70 Wang, Z., Wang, P., An, J. (2016). Zika virus and Zika fever.Virologica Sinica,31(2), 103-109. https://dx.doi.org/10.1007/s12250-016-3780-y Weltman, J. (2016). An Immuno-Bioinformatic Analysis of Zika virus (ZIKV) Envelope E Protein.Journal Of Medical Microbiology Diagnosis,05(02). https://dx.doi.org/10.4172/2161-0703.1000228 White, M., Wollebo, H., David Beckham, J., Tyler, K., Khalili, K. (2016). Zika virus: An emergent neuropathological agent.Annals Of Neurology,80(4), 479-489. https://dx.doi.org/10.1002/ana.24748 Zea-Vera, A., Parra, B. (2016). Zika virus (ZIKV) infection related with immune thrombocytopenic purpura (ITP) exacerbation and antinuclear antibody positivity.Lupus,26(8), 890-892. https://dx.doi.org/10.1177/0961203316671816

Hinayan and Mahayn Essay Example

Hinayan and Mahayn Essay Introductory Comparison of Hinayana and Mahayana Alexander Berzin Berlin, Germany, January 2002 [edited transcript] The Terms Hinayana and Mahayana The terms Hinayana (Lesser Vehicle or Modest Vehicle) and Mahayana (Greater Vehicle or Vast Vehicle) originated in The Prajnaparamita Sutras (The Sutras on Far-Reaching Discriminating Awareness, The Perfection of Wisdom Sutras). They are a rather derogatory pair of words, aggrandizing Mahayana and putting down Hinayana. Alternative terms for them, however, have many other shortcomings, and so therefore I shall use these more standard terms for them here. See: The Terms Hinayana and Mahayana. ] Hinayana encompasses eighteen schools. The most important for our purposes are Sarvastivada and Theravada. Theravada is the one extant today in Sri Lanka and Southeast Asia. Sarvastivada was widespread in Northern India when the Tibetans started to travel there and Buddhism began to be transplanted to Tibet. There were two main divisions of Sarvasti vada based on philosophical differences: Vaibhashika and Sautrantika. Hinayana tenet systems studied at the Indian monastic universities such as Nalanda, and later by the Tibetan Mahayanists, are from these two schools. The lineage of monastic vows followed in Tibet is from another Sarvastivada subdivision, Mulasarvastivada. [See: A Brief History of Buddhism in India before the Thirteenth-Century Invasions. ] Buddhas and Arhats There is quite a significant difference between the Hinayana and Mahayana presentations of arhats and Buddhas. Both agree that arhats, or liberated beings, are more limited than Buddhas, or enlightened beings, are. Mahayana formulates this difference in terms of two sets of obscurations: the emotional ones, which prevent liberation, and the cognitive ones, which prevent omniscience. Arhats are free of only the former, whereas Buddhas are free of both. This division is not found in Hinayana. It is purely a Mahayana formulation. To gain liberation or enlightenment, both Hinayana and Mahayana assert that one needs nonconceptual cognition of the lack of an impossible â€Å"soul. † Such a lack is often called â€Å" selflessness,† anatma in Sanskrit, the main Indian scriptural language of Sarvastivada and Mahayana; anatta in Pali, the scriptural language of Theravada. We will write a custom essay sample on Hinayan and Mahayn specifically for you for only $16.38 $13.9/page Order now We will write a custom essay sample on Hinayan and Mahayn specifically for you FOR ONLY $16.38 $13.9/page Hire Writer We will write a custom essay sample on Hinayan and Mahayn specifically for you FOR ONLY $16.38 $13.9/page Hire Writer The Hinayana schools assert this lack of an impossible â€Å"soul† with respect only to persons, not all phenomena. Persons lack a â€Å"soul,† an atman, that is unaffected by anything, partless, and separable from a body and a mind, and which can be cognized on its own. Such a â€Å"soul† is impossible. With just the understanding that there is no such thing as this type of â€Å"soul† with respect to persons, one can become either an arhat or a Buddha. The difference depends on how much positive force or so-called â€Å" merit† one builds up. Because of their development of the enlightening aim of bodhichitta, Buddhas have built up far more positive force than arhats have. Mahayana asserts that Buddhas understand the lack of an impossible â€Å"soul† with respect to all phenomena as well as with respect to persons. They call this lack â€Å"voidness. † The various Indian schools of Mahayana differ regarding whether or not arhats also understand the voidness of phenomena. Within Mahayana, Prasangika Madhyamaka asserts that they do. However, the four Tibetan traditions explain this point differently regarding the Prasangika assertion. Some say that the voidness of phenomena understood by arhats is different from that understood by Buddhas; some assert the two voidnesses are the same. Some say that the scope of phenomena to which the voidness of phenomena applies is more limited for arhats than it is for Buddhas; some assert it is the same. There is no need to go into all the details here. [See: Comparison of the Hinayana and Mahayana Assertions of the Understandings of Voidness by Arhats and Buddhas. ] Further Points Concerning Buddhas and Arhats The assertions of Hinayana and Mahayana concerning arhats and Buddhas differ in many other ways. Theravada, for instance, asserts that one of the differences between a shravaka or â€Å"listener† striving toward the liberation of an arhat and a bodhisattva striving toward the enlightenment of a Buddha is that shravakas study with Buddhist teachers, while bodhisattvas do not. The historical Buddha, Shakyamuni, for instance, did not study with another Buddha. He studied only with non-Buddhist teachers, whose methods he ultimately rejected. In the fact that Buddha’s understanding and attainment id not arise from reliance on a Buddhist teacher, Theravada asserts that a Buddha’s wisdom surpasses that of an arhat. In addition, bodhisattvas work to become universal Buddhist teachers; shravakas do not, although as arhats they certainly teach disciples. Before passing away, Buddha himself deputed his arhat disciple Shariputra to continue â€Å"turning the wheel of Dharma . † According to Theravada, however, Buddhas excel arhats in being more skillful in methods for leading others to liberation and in the breadth of their conduct of teaching. This is the meaning of a Buddha’s being omniscient. However, according to this presentation, a Buddha would not know everyone’s address and would have to ask such information from others. According to the Vaibhashika school of Hinayana, Buddhas are actually omniscient in knowing such information, but they only know one thing at a time. According to Mahayana, omniscience means knowing everything simultaneously. This follows from its view that everything is interconnected and interdependent; we cannot speak of just one piece of information, totally unrelated to the rest. Hinayana says that the historical Buddha achieved enlightenment in his lifetime and, like an arhat, when he died, his mental continuum came to an end. Therefore, according to Hinayana, Buddhas teach only for the rest of the lifetime in which they achieve enlightenment. They do not emanate to countless world systems and go on teaching forever, as Mahayana asserts. Only Mahayana asserts that the historical Buddha became enlightened in a previous lifetime many eons ago, by studying with Buddhist teachers. He was just demonstrated enlightenment under the bodhi tree as one of the twelve enlightening deeds of a Buddha. The precursor of this description of a Buddha is found in the Mahasanghika School of Hinayana, another of the eighteen Hinayana schools, but is not found in either Sarvastivada or Theravada. [See: The Twelve Enlightening Deeds of a Buddha. ] Concerning Buddhas, another major difference is that only Mahayana asserts the three corpuses or bodies of a Buddha – Nirmanakaya, Sambhogakaya, and Dharmakaya. Hinayana does not assert them. Thus, the concept of a Buddha is significantly different in Hinayana and Mahayana. [See: Identifying the Objects of Safe Direction (Refuge). The Pathway Minds Leading to Liberation and Enlightenment Hinayana and Mahayana both assert that the stages of progress to the purified state, or â€Å"bodhi,† of either an arhat or a Buddha entail developing five levels of pathway mind – the so-called â€Å"five paths. † These are a building-up pathway mind or path of accumulation, an applying pathway mind or path of preparation, a seeing pa thway mind or path of seeing, an accustoming pathway mind or path of meditation, and a path needing no further training or path of no more learning. Shravakas and bodhisattvas who attain a seeing pathway of mind both become aryas, highly realized beings. Both have nonconceptual cognition of the sixteen aspects of the four noble truths. [See: The Five Pathway Minds: Basic Presentation. See also: The Sixteen Aspects and the Sixteen Distorted Ways of Embracing the Four Noble Truths. ] Both Hinayana and Mahayana agree that a seeing pathway mind rids both arya shravakas and arya bodhisattvas of doctrinally based disturbing emotions, while an accustoming pathway mind rids them of automatically arising disturbing emotions. The former are based on learning the set of assertions of one of the non-Buddhist Indian schools, while the latter arise automatically in everyone, including animals. The list of disturbing emotions that shravaka and bodhisattva aryas rid themselves of is part of a larger list of mental factors. Each of the Hinayana schools has its own list of mental factors, while Mahayana asserts yet another list. Many of the mental factors are defined differently in each list. Both Hinayana and Mahayana agree that the course of progressing through the five pathway minds entails practicing the thirty-seven factors leading to a purified state. A â€Å"purified state† or â€Å" bodhi† refers to either arhatship or Buddhahood. These thirty-seven factors include the four close placements of mindfulness, the eight branches of an arya pathway mind (the eightfold noble path), and so on. They are very important. In anuttarayoga tantra, the thrity-seven are represented by Yamantaka’s thirty-four arms plus his body, speech and mind, as well as by the dakinis in the body mandala of Vajrayogini. The thirty-seven are a standard set of practices. The specifics of each practice, however, are often different in Hinayana and Mahayana. See: The Theravada Practice of the Four Close Placements of Mindfulness. See also: The Four Close Placements of Mindfulness According to Mahayana. ] Both Hinayana and Mahayana assert that the scheme of stream-enterer, once-returner, non-returner and arhat refers to stages of an arya shravaka’s path, but not to the path of an arya bodhisattva. Thus, stream-enterers have nonconceptu al cognition of the sixteen aspects of the four noble truths, which include nonconceptual cognition of the lack of an impossible â€Å"soul† of persons. We should not think that stream-enterer is a beginner level. So if someone claims to have achieved the state of a stream-enterer, be suspicious. Hinayana does not provide an extensive explanation of the bodhisattva pathway minds. Mahayana, however, explains that an arya bodhisattva’s path to enlightenment entails progressing through the development of ten levels of bhumi-mind. These levels of mind do not pertain to the path of shravakas. Both Hinayana and Mahayana agree that traversing the bodhisattva path to enlightenment takes more time than traversing the shravaka one to arhatship. Only Mahayana, however, speaks of building up the two enlightenment-building networks – the two collections – for three zillion eons. â€Å" Zillion,† usually translated as â€Å"countless,† means a finite number, though we would be unable to count it. Shravakas, on the other hand, can attain arhatship in as short as three lifetimes. In the first lifetime, one becomes a stream-enterer, in the next lifetime a once-returner, and in the third lifetime, one becomes a non-returner, achieves liberation, and becomes an arhat. This is quite tempting for many people. The assertion that arhats are selfish is like bodhisattva propaganda. It is basically meant to point out an extreme to avoid. The sutras record that Buddha asked his sixty arhat disciples to teach. If they were truly selfish, they would not have agreed to do so. Arhats, however, can only help others to a more limited extent than Buddhas can. Both, however, can only help those with the karma to be helped by them. Bodhisattvas It is important to realize that the Hinayana schools do assert that before becoming a Buddha, one follows the bodhisattva path. Both Hinayana and Mahayana have versions of the Jataka tales describing the previous lives of Buddha Shakyamuni as a bodhisattva. Starting with King Siri Sanghabodhi in the third century CE, many Sri Lankan kings even called themselves bodhisattvas. Of course, this is a little tricky to untangle because there was some Mahayana present in Sri Lanka at the time. Whether this idea of bodhisattva kings preexisted a Mahayana influence is hard to say, but it did happen. Even more surprisingly, in the fifth century CE, the elders at the Sri Lankan capital Anuradhapura declared Buddhaghosa, a great Theravada Abhidharma master, to be an incarnation of the bodhisattva Maitreya. Mahayana asserts that there are a thousand Buddhas in this â€Å"fortunate eon† who will start universal religions, and there have been and will be many more Buddhas in other world ages. Mahayana also asserts that everyone can become a Buddha, because everyone has the Buddha-nature factors that enable this attainment. Hinayana does not discuss Buddha-nature. Nevertheless, Theravada does mention hundreds of Buddhas of the past. One Theravada sutta even lists twenty-seven by name. All of them were bodhisattvas before becoming Buddhas. Theravada asserts that there will be innumerable Buddhas in the future as well, including Maitreya as the next one, and that anyone can become a Buddha if they practice the ten far-reaching attitudes. The Ten Far-Reaching Attitudes Mahayana says that the ten far-reaching attitudes are practiced only by bodhisattvas and not by shravakas. This is because Mahayana defines a far-reaching attitude or â€Å"perfection† as one that is held by the force of a bodhichitta aim. According to Theravada, however, so long as the ten attitudes are held by the force of renunciation, the determination to be free, bodhichitta is not necessary for their practice to be far-reaching and act as a cause for liberation. Thus, Theravada asserts that both bodhisattvas and shravakas practice ten far-reaching attitudes. Aside from the different motivating aims behind them, the other main difference between a bodhisattva’s and a shravaka’s practice of the ten is the degree of their intensity. Thus, each of the ten far-reaching attitudes has three stages or degrees: ordinary, medium, and highest. For example, the highest practice of generosity would be giving one’s body to feed a hungry tigress, as Buddha did in a previous life as a bodhisattva. The list of the ten far-reaching attitudes also differs slightly in Theravada and Mahayana. The Mahayana list is: * generosity * ethical self-discipline * patience * joyful perseverance * mental stability * discriminating awareness * skill in means

Supporting The Constitution Or Playing The Political Game Coursework

Supporting The Constitution Or Playing The Political Game Coursework Supporting The Constitution Or Playing The Political Game – Coursework Example Topic: Supporting the Constitution or Playing the Political Game Voter ID laws in Texas The Attorney General Erick Holder was justified to challenge the new voting laws in Taxes. This is due to the nature of the laws as they are considered as a violating of the federal Voting Rights Act which advocates for equality in the voting process in State and national elections (New Fox, 2013). The voter ID laws were aimed at suppressing the minority voters’ turnout thus going against the Voting Rights Act. A.G Erick Holder argues that the ID laws imposed by the State of taxes may raise racial discrimination issues in the voting process (New Fox, 2013). This is due to the fact that approximately 600,000 Hispanic and blacks in Taxes lack eligible Identification Cards to vote (Weissert & Richmond, 2014). The Voter ID laws came at a time which would hinder this minority population from casting out votes in the general and state election which is regarded as a violation of the federal Votin g Rights Act. The new laws would result to a lot of complication in the impending election as it would deprive approximately 13.6 million people from casting out their votes (Weissert & Richmond, 2014). It would also raise racial concerns as it creates impermissible as well as discriminatory effects on the minority population which is made up of the African-American and Hispanic communities. It would also constitute to an unconstitutional poll tax which raises the election budget. The Attorney General was right to challenge the Voter Identification laws in Taxes as it was enacted without consultations from the federal Supreme Court or the DOJ court. As a result, the federal court has the right to disallow the implementation of the laws if they violet federal laws. ReferencesNew Fox. (2013). Holder takes on Texas over voting laws after court ruling: Published July 25, 2013. Retrieved from foxnews.com/politics/2013/07/25/ag-opens-new-front-on-voting-rights-protection/Weissert W & Rich mond T. (2014). The State: Courts block voter ID laws in Texas, Wisconsin: Published: October 10, 2014. Retrieved from: thestate.com/2014/10/10/3735909/courts-block-voter-id-laws-in.html

Risk Management in Rapid Linear and Linear PMLC Assignment

Risk Management in Rapid Linear and Linear PMLC - Assignment Example Implementing the Rapid linear project management life cycle model instead of linear project management life cycle model however has associated risks that I seek to explore in this paper. One of the involved risks in implementing the Rapid linear project management life cycle model instead of the linear project management life cycle model is the possible confusion that may arise from the required extensive documentation. The manager may therefore miss the most important aspects of the management process because of demanded attention by the documentation process and the documented information. Loss of creativity in a project is another risk that is associated with the Rapid Linear PMLC model and arises from the rigid scope of the model that reduces the project manager and project team members to instruments for implementing designed processes rather than creative resources for improving project process and products. The associated complications in disintegrating project functions are another risk of the model and may lead to mistakes and inaccuracies in project implementation (Wysocki 28; Wysocki n.p.). The model’s swim lane operational approach also identifies risks of ineffectiveness and excessive wastes in event of paralyzed process in one lane. Concurrent implementation of process may also lead to wasted resources is one phase fails. Under the linear model, such a failure would mitigate losses by suspending subsequent processes but such measures may not be possible because other processes in the rapid model will be underway. Reliance on same personnel for operating the different phases of a project, in the rapid model, is another risk factor because personnel may be held up in one department and fails to attend to an emergency in another department. The tight schedule of the model that seeks to complete a project within the shortest time possible also poses the